Variables and Scoping

Until now, we have simply used variables without any explanation. Julia’s usage of variables closely resembles that of other dynamic languages, so we have hopefully gotten away with this liberty. In what follows, however, we address this oversight and provide details of how variables are used, declared, and scoped in Julia.

The scope of a variable is the region of code within which a variable is visible. Variable scoping helps avoid variable naming conflicts. The concept is intuitive: two functions can both have arguments called x without the two x‘s referring to the same thing. Similarly there are many other cases where different blocks of code can use the same name without referring to the same thing. The rules for when the same variable name does or doesn’t refer to the same thing are called scope rules; this section spells them out in detail.

Certain constructs in the language introduce scope blocks, which are regions of code that are eligible to be the scope of some set of variables. The scope of a variable cannot be an arbitrary set of source lines, but will always line up with one of these blocks. The constructs introducing such blocks are:

• function bodies (either syntax)
• while loops
• for loops
• try blocks
• catch blocks
• let blocks
• type blocks.

Notably missing from this list are begin blocks, which do not introduce a new scope block.

Certain constructs introduce new variables into the current innermost scope. When a variable is introduced into a scope, it is also inherited by all inner scopes unless one of those inner scopes explicitly overrides it. These constructs which introduce new variables into the current scope are as follows:

• A declaration local x introduces a new local variable.
• A declaration global x makes x in the current scope and inner scopes refer to the global variable of that name.
• A function’s arguments are introduced as new local variables into the function’s body scope.
• An assignment x = y introduces a new local variable x only if x is neither declared global nor explicitly introduced as local by any enclosing scope, before or after the current line of code.

In the following example, there is only one x assigned both inside and outside a loop:

function foo(n)
  x = 0
  for i = 1:n
    x = x + 1
  end
  x
end

julia> foo(10)
10

In the next example, the loop has a separate x and the function always returns zero:

function foo(n)
  x = 0
  for i = 1:n
    local x
    x = i
  end
  x
end

julia> foo(10)
0

In this example, an x exists only inside the loop, and the function encounters an undefined variable error on its last line (unless there is a global variable x):

function foo(n)
  for i = 1:n
    x = i
  end
  x
end

julia> foo(10)
in foo: x not defined

A variable that is not assigned to or otherwise introduced locally defaults to global, so this function would return the value of the global x if there is such a variable, or produce an error if no such global exists. As a consequence, the only way to assign to a global variable inside a non-top-level scope is to explicitly declare the variable as global within some scope, since otherwise the assignment would introduce a new local rather than assigning to the global. This rule works out well in practice, since the vast majority of variables assigned inside functions are intended to be local variables, and using global variables should be the exception rather than the rule, especially assigning new values to them.

One last example shows that an outer assignment introducing x need not come before an inner usage:

function foo(n)
  f = y -> n + x + y
  x = 1
  f(2)
end

julia> foo(10)
13

This last example may seem slightly odd for a normal variable, but allows for named functions — which are just normal variables holding function objects — to be used before they are defined. This allows functions to be defined in whatever order is intuitive and convenient, rather than forcing bottom up ordering or requiring forward declarations, both of which one typically sees in C programs. As an example, here is an inefficient, mutually recursive way to test if positive integers are even or odd:

even(n) = n == 0 ? true  :  odd(n-1)
odd(n)  = n == 0 ? false : even(n-1)

julia> even(3)
false

julia> odd(3)
true

Julia provides built-in, efficient functions to test this called iseven and isodd so the above definitions should only be taken as examples.

Since functions can be used before they are defined, as long as they are defined by the time they are actually called, no syntax for forward declarations is necessary, and definitions can be ordered arbitrarily.

At the interactive prompt, variable scope works the same way as anywhere else. The prompt behaves as if there is scope block wrapped around everything you type, except that this scope block is identified with the global scope. This is especially apparent in the case of assignments:

julia> for i = 1:1; y = 10; end

julia> y
y not defined

julia> y = 0
0

julia> for i = 1:1; y = 10; end

julia> y
10

In the former case, y only exists inside of the for loop. In the latter case, an outer y has been introduced and so is inherited within the loop. Due to the special identification of the prompt’s scope block with the global scope, it is not necessary to declare global y inside the loop. However, in code not entered into the interactive prompt this declaration would be necessary in order to modify a global variable.

The let statement provides a different way to introduce variables. Unlike assignments to local variables, let statements allocate new variable bindings each time they run. An assignment modifies an existing value location, and let creates new locations. This difference is usually not important, and is only detectable in the case of variables that outlive their scope via closures. The let syntax accepts a comma-separated series of assignments and variable names:

let var1 = value1, var2, var3 = value3
    code
end

Unlike local variable assignments, the assignments do not occur in order. Rather, all assignment right-hand sides are evaluated in the scope outside the let, then the let variables are assigned “simultaneously”. In this way, let operates like a function call. Indeed, the following code:

let a = b, c = d
  body
end

is equivalent to ((a,c)->body)(b, d). Therefore it makes sense to write something like let x = x since the two x variables are distinct and have separate storage. Here is an example where the behavior of let is needed:

Fs = cell(2);
for i = 1:2
  Fs[i] = ()->i
end

julia> Fs[1]()
2

julia> Fs[2]()
2

Here we create and store two closures that return variable i. However, it is always the same variable i, so the two closures behave identically. We can use let to create a new binding for i:

Fs = cell(2);
for i = 1:2
  let i = i
    Fs[i] = ()->i
  end
end

julia> Fs[1]()
1

julia> Fs[2]()
2

Since the begin construct does not introduce a new block, it can be useful to use the zero-argument let to just introduce a new scope block without creating any new bindings:

julia> begin
         local x = 1
         begin
           local x = 2
         end
         x
       end
syntax error: local x declared twice

julia> begin
         local x = 1
         let
           local x = 2
         end
         x
       end
1

The first example is illegal because you cannot declare the same variable as local in the same scope twice. The second example is legal since the let introduces a new scope block, so the inner local x is a different variable than the outer local x.

Constants

A common use of variables is giving names to specific, unchanging values. Such variables are only assigned once. This intent can be conveyed to the compiler using the const keyword:

const e  = 2.71828182845904523536
const pi = 3.14159265358979323846

The const declaration is allowed on both global and local variables, but is especially useful for globals. It is difficult for the compiler to optimize code involving global variables, since their values (or even their types) might change at almost any time. If a global variable will not change, adding a const declaration solves this performance problem.

Local constants are quite different. The compiler is able to determine automatically when a local variable is constant, so local constant declarations are not necessary for performance purposes.

Special top-level assignments, such as those performed by the function and type keywords, are constant by default.

Note that const only affects the variable binding; the variable may be bound to a mutable object (such as an array), and that object may still be modified.